3D-printed bone scaffold promoting bone regeneration

3D-Printed Bone Scaffolds: How Surface Chemistry is Revolutionizing Bone Regeneration

Lena Kashyap in Health & Wellness December 2025 • 4 min read.

"Discover how surface modification techniques like NaOH treatment and RGD immobilization are enhancing bone regeneration in 3D-printed scaffolds, paving the way for better bone implants."

When a large bone defect occurs, the natural healing process isn't always enough, making treatments such as bone autografts necessary. While autografts have been the standard, they come with limitations like limited supply and multiple surgeries. Bone tissue engineering offers a promising alternative, utilizing materials that can temporarily support bone regeneration.

In bone tissue engineering, scaffolds act as temporary matrices that support cell growth and tissue formation. 3D printing is now essential in creating these scaffolds, offering precise control over their shape and internal structure. These scaffolds are often made from materials like poly(e-caprolactone) (PCL), polylactic acid (PLA), and poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA), known for their biocompatibility and tailorable degradation rates.

However, PCL's hydrophobic nature and smooth surface present challenges for cell attachment, proliferation, and differentiation. Researchers are exploring surface modifications such as chemical treatments and immobilization of molecules to enhance cellular interactions. A key question is whether chemical surface modification or immobilization of biologically active molecules on the surface is more effective to enhance pre-osteoblast proliferation and differentiation. This article explores the cutting-edge research that seeks to answer these questions.

Surface Modification Techniques: NaOH Treatment vs. RGD Immobilization

3D-printed bone scaffold promoting bone regeneration

Researchers have been investigating various surface modification methods to improve the performance of PCL scaffolds. These methods include physical treatments (e.g., y-radiation, plasma treatment), chemical treatments (e.g., hydrolysis, aminolysis), and biological methods (e.g., coating, immobilization of proteins and ligands).

Two prominent techniques are:

NaOH Hydrolysis: This chemical treatment uses sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to increase the hydrophilicity of PCL by creating carboxyl and hydroxyl groups on the surface. This makes the surface more attractive to cells.
RGD Immobilization: This biological method involves attaching RGD peptides (arginine-glycine-aspartic acid) to the PCL surface. RGD peptides are known to promote cell attachment and proliferation by interacting with cell surface integrins.

While both methods aim to improve cell interactions with the scaffold, their effects on cell behavior and bone regeneration can differ. Understanding these differences is crucial for designing effective bone implants.

Choosing the Right Surface: What Does This Mean for Bone Implants?

The results of this research suggest that both RGD immobilization and NaOH treatment enhance pre-osteoblast proliferation and matrix deposition on 3D-printed PCL scaffolds. However, only NaOH treatment leads to increased osteogenic activity, making it a potentially more effective treatment for promoting bone formation. These insights are valuable for future designs of bone implants.

About this Article -

This article was crafted using a human-AI hybrid and collaborative approach. AI assisted our team with initial drafting, research insights, identifying key questions, and image generation. Our human editors guided topic selection, defined the angle, structured the content, ensured factual accuracy and relevance, refined the tone, and conducted thorough editing to deliver helpful, high-quality information.See our About page for more information.

This article is based on research published under:

DOI-LINK: 10.1088/1748-605x/aaeb82, Alternate LINK

Title: Enhanced Osteogenic Activity By Mc3T3-E1 Pre-Osteoblasts On Chemically Surface-Modified Poly( Ε -Caprolactone) 3D-Printed Scaffolds Compared To Rgd Immobilized Scaffolds

Subject: Biomedical Engineering

Journal: Biomedical Materials

Publisher: IOP Publishing

Authors: Yasaman Zamani, Javad Mohammadi, Ghassem Amoabediny, Dafydd O Visscher, Marco N Helder, Behrouz Zandieh-Doulabi, Jenneke Klein-Nulend

Published: 2018-11-13

Everything You Need To Know

What is bone tissue engineering and why is it important?

Bone tissue engineering is a biomedical approach focused on regenerating bone tissue in cases where the body's natural healing processes are insufficient, such as large bone defects. It's important because traditional methods like bone autografts have limitations, including a limited supply of bone and the need for multiple surgeries. Bone tissue engineering uses scaffolds to support cell growth and tissue formation, offering a promising alternative for effective bone regeneration and improved patient outcomes.

Why is 3D printing important in the creation of bone scaffolds?

3D printing is significant in creating bone scaffolds because it allows for precise control over the shape and internal structure of the scaffolds. This precision is crucial for mimicking the natural bone environment and guiding tissue regeneration effectively. This level of control enables researchers and engineers to design scaffolds that optimize cell growth, nutrient delivery, and waste removal, ultimately enhancing the success of bone implants.

What are PCL, PLA, and PLGA, and why are they used in bone scaffolds?

PCL, PLA, and PLGA are biocompatible materials often used in 3D-printed bone scaffolds due to their biocompatibility and tailorable degradation rates. This means they are well-tolerated by the body and can be designed to break down at a controlled rate, allowing new bone tissue to replace the scaffold over time. However, PCL's hydrophobic nature and smooth surface can hinder cell attachment, proliferation, and differentiation, necessitating surface modifications to improve cellular interactions.

What is NaOH hydrolysis and how does it improve bone regeneration?

NaOH hydrolysis is a chemical surface modification technique that uses sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to increase the hydrophilicity of PCL scaffolds. This process creates carboxyl and hydroxyl groups on the scaffold surface, making it more attractive to cells. This is significant because enhanced hydrophilicity promotes better cell attachment, proliferation, and differentiation, leading to improved bone regeneration. However, the effect may vary compared to biological methods, and optimization is needed to achieve the best outcome.

What is RGD immobilization and how does it help in bone regeneration?

RGD immobilization is a biological method that involves attaching RGD peptides (arginine-glycine-aspartic acid) to the PCL scaffold surface. RGD peptides promote cell attachment and proliferation by interacting with cell surface integrins. This is crucial because it enhances the integration of cells with the scaffold, leading to improved tissue formation and bone regeneration. Compared to NaOH treatment, RGD immobilization has different effects on cell behavior and bone regeneration, highlighting the need to carefully choose surface modification techniques for effective bone implants.