Interwoven DNA strands forming human figures, symbolizing diverse ethnic groups, set against a backdrop of interconnected global health icons.

Unpacking Race and Ethnicity: Why Clear Definitions Matter in Public Health

Mira Elwood in Health & Wellness August 2025 • 4 min read.

"Navigating the Complexities of Race and Ethnicity in Health Research to Achieve Equitable Outcomes"

It's a universal truth: health and disease don't affect everyone equally. These disparities are evident across various population groups, whether defined by race, ethnicity, nationality, religion, socioeconomic status, or gender. In the United States, racial and ethnic disparities are well-documented in physical and mental health conditions, health-related risk factors, and access to quality healthcare services.

The true challenge for public health lies in understanding the root causes of these disparities. By identifying the underlying factors, we can inform effective policies and develop targeted programs aimed at reducing health inequalities. But here's the catch: how we classify population groups significantly impacts how we examine and interpret these health disparities. Over the past few decades, the theories and methods used to study racial and ethnic disparities have faced substantial criticism within public health and epidemiology.

Several comprehensive reviews have pinpointed key issues in how race and ethnicity are used in public health research. These include: a failure to differentiate between the concepts of race and ethnicity, inconsistency and lack of transparency in assessment methods, and a dearth of thoughtful interpretation of study results. Reviews in related fields like biomedicine and nursing research have echoed these concerns, highlighting the urgent need for clarity and precision.

Race vs. Ethnicity: Untangling the Definitions

Interwoven DNA strands forming human figures, symbolizing diverse ethnic groups, set against a backdrop of interconnected global health icons.

In recent anthropological and public health discourse, race and ethnicity are distinctly defined as concepts that address two separate facets of human diversity. Understanding the difference is the first step towards more accurate and meaningful research.

From a biological standpoint, the concept of human races suggests that the human species is divided into discrete, non-overlapping biological groups. These groups are often identified by physical traits like skin color, morphological characteristics, geographic ancestry, or genetic markers. For instance, the U.S. Office of Management and Budget currently defines six racial categories: White or Caucasian, Black or African American, Asian, American Indian or Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander, and 'some other Race'.

The Limits of Biology: Current scientific knowledge and genetics challenge the notion that these racial groups are mutually exclusive based on biology.
Genetic Variation: While clines and clusters exist in human genetic variation, they account for relatively little of the total variation. The three conventional racial groupings based on continental origins (Europe, Africa, and Asia) differ from each other by only 10% to 15% of their genes. Most human genetic variation is non-concordant, meaning that traits used to distinguish races have limited value in predicting other biological characteristics.
Social Construct: Despite the dismissal of race as a purely biological concept, public health scholars propose using race as a social construct to understand social interactions and perceptions of race. The socio-cultural reality of race has biological consequences through social inequalities and embodied inequalities, perpetuating a racialized view of human biology.

From a sociocultural perspective, ethnicity emphasizes the existence of cultural diversity among human populations. It encompasses shared cultural models (language, diet, dress, rituals), ancestral connections (common history, territory, kinship), and referential boundaries (distinction between groups). Ethnic identity is expressed through communalization, arising from social relations and a shared belief in common origins and history.

Moving Forward: Towards More Equitable Health Research

To tackle the key problems in research related to race and ethnicity, we must first acknowledge that race and ethnicity are conceptually different. Doing so enables the appropriate selection of theories and methods to study each concept effectively, whether independently or in interaction. By recognizing the distinct nature of race and ethnicity, we can begin to address health disparities with greater precision and promote more equitable outcomes.

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This article is based on research published under:

DOI-LINK: 10.1590/s0034-89102013000100014, Alternate LINK

Title: Persisting Problems Related To Race And Ethnicity In Public Health And Epidemiology Research

Subject: Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health

Journal: Revista de Saúde Pública

Publisher: FapUNIFESP (SciELO)

Authors: Jean-Claude Moubarac

Published: 2013-02-01

Everything You Need To Know

What are the main differences between race and ethnicity?

The concepts of race and ethnicity are distinctly defined as separate facets of human diversity. Race, from a biological standpoint, refers to groups often identified by physical traits like skin color and geographic ancestry. The U.S. Office of Management and Budget currently defines six racial categories. Ethnicity, from a sociocultural perspective, emphasizes cultural diversity, including language, diet, rituals, and ancestral connections. It focuses on shared cultural models, common history, and boundaries distinguishing groups. Understanding the difference is the first step towards more accurate and meaningful research to address health disparities.

Why is race important in understanding health?

Race is important because it serves as a social construct to understand social interactions and perceptions. While the biological concept of race has limitations, the socio-cultural reality of race has biological consequences through social inequalities and embodied inequalities. This means that even though the biological basis for race is challenged, the way society views and treats different racial groups affects their health outcomes. Ignoring this would mean missing critical factors contributing to health disparities. The racial categories used by the U.S. Office of Management and Budget are a direct reflection of this complex interplay of social and biological factors.

What is the significance of ethnicity in the context of health?

Ethnicity is significant because it highlights cultural diversity among populations. Ethnicity encompasses shared cultural models like language, diet, dress, and rituals, along with ancestral connections like a common history and territory. Recognizing ethnicity helps in understanding how cultural factors influence health behaviors, access to healthcare, and overall health outcomes. For example, understanding the ethnic background of a population allows for the development of culturally sensitive health programs and interventions. This can lead to more effective strategies for addressing health disparities within these groups.

What are health disparities, and why is it important to understand them?

Health disparities are differences in health outcomes across various population groups. These groups can be defined by race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and other factors. These disparities are evident in physical and mental health, health-related risk factors, and access to quality healthcare services. Failing to address these disparities means that certain populations may experience poorer health outcomes than others, leading to inequitable health outcomes. Recognizing the distinct nature of race and ethnicity is crucial because it allows for the appropriate selection of theories and methods to study each concept effectively, whether independently or in interaction, to address these disparities.

What are the implications of not differentiating between race and ethnicity in research?

The implications of not differentiating between race and ethnicity in research are significant. Failing to distinguish between the two concepts can lead to inaccurate interpretations of study results and ineffective interventions. It can also mean missing the specific cultural factors impacting health outcomes. This can result in policies and programs that don't effectively address the root causes of health disparities. Recognizing the distinct nature of race and ethnicity, enables the appropriate selection of theories and methods to study each concept effectively, leading to more equitable outcomes. It promotes the development of targeted programs designed to reduce health inequalities with greater precision.